8.4

Vocab:
carbon cycle - the process by which carbon molecules move between organic matter and organic matter

greenhouse: the property that keeps the earth warm by trapping heat from the sun.

Concept Check:

An example of inorganics carbon being transfered into organic is when a plant absorbs the CO2 from the air and produce sugar. An example of organic compound moving carbon into inorganic compounds is when animals eat food and produce CO2.

Cabon Dioxide is very important to the Earth's climate because they trap heat from the sun to keep earth warm during the night.

8.3

• The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide
  


• Calvin cycle produces sugar and other organic compounds used as fuel
  


• Starting material is regenerated each cycle
  


• Starting material is RuBP, a sugar with five carbons
  


• Inputs of cycle: carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH
  


• Outputs: small energy-rich sugar molecule called G3P
  


• G3P: Raw material to make glucose and other organic molecules
  


• Light reactions take place in thylakoid membranes
  


• Convert light energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
  


• Light reactions use water in equation and produce oxygen
  


• Calvin cycle takes place in stroma
  


• 
  


• Uses ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into sugar
  


• Photosynhesis is first step in flow of energy through ecosystem
  


• Chemical energy passed from producers to consumers
  


• Photosynthesis is ultimate source of food and oxygen

Concept Check 8.31) What are the

inputs and outputs of the Calvin cycle?The inputs are carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH.

The output is G3P.2)

Which stage of photosynthesis uses each reactant from the overall photosynthesis equation? Which stage generates each product from the overall photosynthesis equation?The light reactions use water as a reactant and produce oxygen. The Calvin cycle uses carbon dioxide as a reactant and produces sugar.3) Why is the Calvin cycle called a cycle?The Calvin cycle is a cycle because the starting material, RuBP, is regenerated.4) What molecule is the direct product of photosynthesis? How is that molecule then used by plant cells?The direct product of photosynthesis is a small sugar molecule called G3P. With G3P, plant cells can make glucose or any other organic molecule it needs.

Summary 8.2

• Sunlight is a type of electromagnetic energy


• these energys travel in waves


• A wavelength is the distance between two adjacent waves


• The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of different types of electromagnetic energies
  


• These types of electromagnetic energy include gamma rays, x-rays, UV, infrared and others.


• Visible light is the smallest fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum


• visible light consists of wavelengths from 400 nanometers to 700 nanometers


• Shorter wavelengths contain more energy


• people burned by the sun's UV rays people can develop skin cancer


• Colors are caused by chemical compounds known as pigments


• Pigments cannot absorb the same color of light.


• Paper chromatography is a method to observe pigments inside a leaf


• Photosystem is the membrane of the thylakoid


• Photosystems are like mini solar panels that absorb energy


• in the light reactions stage, two photosystems are used


• The first photosystem is used to split water molecules and producing oxygen as a waste but also release hydrogen ions.


• The second photosystem is a NADPH producing photosystem and is done by transferring excited electrons and hydrogen ions to NADP+.

Vocab:

-wavelength: the distance between two adjacent waves.

-electromagnetic spectrum: the range of electromagnetic energy.

-pigment: chemical compounds that decide the color of a substance.

-paper chromatography: a laboratory technique that is used to observe the pigments inside a leaf.

-photosystem: molecules that consists of clusters of chlorophyll a & b and carotenoids.

Concept Check:

1. A leaf is green because of its pigments and pigments are the chemical compounds in substances that decide what different colors they would have.

2. When a chlorophyll a molecule absorbs light they turn a electron from ground state to excited state and causes the electron to jump from molecule to molecule until it gets turned into ATP or NADPH through the primary electron acceptor.

3. Other than oxygen, ATP and NADPH is produced at the end of the light reactions stage.

4. Light reactions always take place inside the thylakoid which is inside the chloroplast.

The light reaction system.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

8.1

• Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast of a plant
  


• Green parts of plants get by using photosynthesis
  


• Chloroplasts are concentrated in the cells of the mesophyll
  


• The mesophyll is the inner layer of tissue in a plant
  


• stomata are tiny pores found on surface of leave
  


• Carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits through stomata
  


• Veins carry water and nutrients from the roots into the leaves
  


• Chloroplast has inner and outer membranes
  


• the inner membrane is encloses with a thick fluid called stroma
  


• Stroma has disk-shaped sacs called thylakoids
  


• In photosynthesis, electrons boosted "uphill" by light energy
  


• Thylakods organize chemical reactions of photosynthesis




• Excited electrons plus carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions produce sugar molecules
  


• the equation for photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
  


• Two main stages: the Calvin cycle and light reactions
  


• Light reactions convert sunlight energy into chemical energy using photosynthesis
  


• Reactions depend on molecules built into thylakoid membranes
  


• Chlorophyll captures light energy
  


• Chloroplasts use energy to remove electrons from water
  


• Oxygen is "waste product" and is a product
  


• NADPH = Electrons + hydrogen ions
  


• Calvin cycle makes sugar from atoms in CO2, hydrogen ions, and high-energy electrons carried by NADPH
  


• ATP provides energy to make sugar
  


• Calvin cycle does not directly require light
  


• Requires two inputs from light reactions: ATP and NADPH
  

Vocabulary

Chloroplast: organelle found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place

Chlorophyll: pigment that makes chloroplast green; uses light energy to split water molecules during photosynthesis

Stroma: thick fluid contained in inner membrane of a chloroplast

Thylakoid: disk-shaped sac in the stroma of a chloroplast; site of light reactions of photosynthesis

Light reactions: chemical reactions that convert sun's energy to chemical energy; take place in the membranes of thylakoids in the chloroplast

Calvin cycle: cycle in plants that makes sugar from carbon dioxide, H+ ions, and high-energy electrons carried by NADPH

Concept Check 8.1

1) ----------------------------------------------------------------------->

2) The reactants for photosynthesis are light energy, carbon dioxide, and water while the products are glucose and oxygen.

3) The two main stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. The light reactions convert light energy to chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP. The Calvin cycle then takes that energy to create sugar.

Page 106-107 questions 1-12, 14, 15.

1. Which of the following is not an organic molecule?
a. cellulose
b. sucrose
c. water
d. testosterone

2. Which of the following terms includes all the other terms on this list?
a. polysaccharides
b. carbohydrate
c. monosaccharide
d. glycogen

3. Which term is most appropriate to describe a molecule that dissolves easily in water?
a. hydrocarbon
b. hydrophobic
c. hydrophilic
d. organic

4. Cholesterol is an example of what kind of molecule?
a. protein
b. lipid
c. amino acid
d. carbohydrate

5. The 20 amino acids vary only in their
a. carboxyl goups.
b. side groups.
c. amino groups.
d. lipid groups.

6. A specific reactant an enzyme acts upon is called the
a. catalyst.
b. sucrase.
c. active site.
d. substrate.

7. An enzyme does which of the following?
a. adds heat to a reaction, speeding it up
b. lowers the activation energy of a reaction
c. cools a reaction, slowing it down
d. raises the activation energy of a reaction

Short Answer

8. Besides satisfying your hunger, why else might you consume a big bowl of pasta the night before a race?

something else it might do is provide protiens that help you survive

9. How are glucose, sucrose, and starch related?

they are glucose makes sucrose (in plant cells) and starch (plalnt cells)

10. What are steroids? Describe two functions they have in cells.

lipid molecule with four fused carbon rings

11. How are polypeptides related to proteins?

polypeptides are a chain of linked amino acids where proteins are 20 amino acids linked together

12. How does denaturation affect the ability of a protein to function?

the denaturation effect helps the protein to heat up allowing it to unfold the proteins because most of the forces that maintain folding are weak attractions between pairs of side groups, and between side groups and water. Hot molecules collide with enough force to overcome these weak attractions. Since a protein's function depends on its shape, a protein that becomes denatured and loses its shape also loses its ability to work properly.

14. Analyzing Diagrams The reaction below shows two amino acids joining together.
a. One product of this reaction is represented by a question mark. Which molecule is it?

water or H2O

b. What is this kind of reaction called? Explain.

it is called a chemical reaction and the H2O molecule is lost in the process

c. If an amino acid were added to this chain, at what two places could it attach?

it would attach between the hydrogen and the oxygen molecules

15. Analyzing Graphs Use the graph to answer the questions below.
a. At which temperature does enzyme A perform best? Enzyme B?

A. 38 degrees and B. 78 degrees

b. Knowing that one of these enzymes is found in humans and the other in thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria, hypothesize which enzyme came from which organism.

i think that Enzyme A came from an organism because the temperature is closer to that of a human

c. Propose a hypothesis that explains why the rate of the reaction catalyzed by enzyme A slows down at temperatures above 40°C.

because much farther after 4o degrees C a human being will die

5.5 Enzymes are proteins that speed up specific reactions in cells

• activation energy is the minimum amount of "start up" energy possible


• catalysts are compounds that speed up chemical reaction


• the main catalysts of a chemical are specialized proteins called enzymes


• a specific reactant acted upon by enzymes is called the enzyme's substrate


• the substrate is in a region called the active site


• the fit between the substrate and an enzyme is smooth


• a way that an enzyme can lower the activation energy is by accepting two reactant energies

Concept Check

1. Explain the role of activation energy in a reaction. how does an enzyme affect activation energy.

The role of activation energy in a chemical reaction is to get things moving. In fireworks you need too light the fuse to have the firework go off.

2. Describe how a substrate interacts with an enzyme.

A substrate is surrounded by an enzyme and the ridge between them is smooth.

5.4 Protiens perform most functions in cells

• a protein is a polymer constructed from a set of just 20 kinds of monomers called amino acids


• an amino acid monomer consists of a central carbon atom bonded to four partners


• by linking amino acids together into a chain called polypeptide


• a protein in the simple form of amino acids linked together cannot function properly


• an unfavorable change in temperature, pH, or some other quality of environment can cause a protein to unravel and lose its normal shape which is a process called denaturation of the protein

Concept check

1. Give at least two examples of proteins you can "see" in the world around you. What are their functions?

1. hair and fur; its function is provide warmth and protection

2. muscle tissue; its function is to allow us to move

2. Relate amino acids, polypeptides, and proteins.

Amino acids are monomers that consist of a central carbon atom; polypeptides are made of linked amino acids; and a protein, like a polypeptide, is made of 20 amino acids.

3. Explain how heat can destroy a protein.

Heat can destroy a protein because hot molecules collide with enough power to break the weak attraction.

4. Which parts of an amino acid's structure are the same in all amino acids? Which part is unique?

The central base of an amino acid's structure which contains the 4 partners - carbon atom, hydrogen, and two others - are always the same in an amino acid. The side group that attaches to the 4 bond is the unique part of an amino acid's structure.